Land-dwelling Food Animals
Though the Torah shebiktav gives no reason for the food definitions given in Vayiqra 11 (and D'varim 14), some of our Sages give us some insight on this. The Rambam, for instance, speaks with regard to the lamb, the goat, and the cow being kosher animals as a means of distinction from the pagan religions.
(ב) ואומר כבר אמרה ה'תורה' כפי מה שפרש אונקלוס שהמצרים היו עובדים מזל טלה ומפני זה היו אוסרים לשחוט הצאן והיו מואסים רועי צאן - אמר "הן נזבח את תועבת מצרים" ואמר "כי תועבת מצרים כל רועה צאן". וכן היו כיתות מן הצאבה עובדים לשדים והיו חושבים שהם ישובו בצורת העזים - ולזה היו קוראים לשדים 'שעירים' - וכבר התפשט הדעת הזה מאד בימי 'משה רבינו' "ולא יזבחו עוד את זבחיהם לשעירים וגו'". ולזה היו אוסרים הכיתות ההם גם כן אכילת העיזים; אכל שחיטת הבקר כמעט שהיו מואסים אותו רוב 'עובדי עבודה זרה' וכולם היו מגדילים זה המין מאד. ולזה תמצא אנשי הודו עד היום לא ישחטו הבקר כלל ואפילו בארצות אשר ישחטו שאר 'מיני בעלי חיים. ובעבור שימחה זכר אלו הדעות אשר אינם אמיתיות צוינו להקריב אלו השלושה מינים לבד מן הבהמה "מן הבקר ומן הצאן תקריבו את קרבנכם" עד שיהיה המעשה אשר חשבוהו תכלית המרי בו יתקרבו אל האלוה ובמעשה ההוא יכופרו העוונות. וכן מרפאים הדעות הרעות אשר הם חליי הנפש האנושית בהפך אשר בקצה האחר.
(ג) ומפני זאת הכונה בעצמה צוינו לשחוט 'כבש הפסח' ולהזות דמו ב'מצרים' על השערים מחוץ - לנקות עצמנו מן הדעות ההם ולפרסם שכנגדם ולהביא להאמין שהמעשה אשר תחשבו בו שהוא סיבה ממיתה הוא המציל מן המות "ופסח יי על הפתח ולא יתן המשחית לבוא אל בתיכם לנגוף" - גמול פרסום העבודה בעשות כל מה שהיו מרחיקים אותו 'עובדי עבודה זרה'.
(2) Scripture tells us, according to the Version of Onkelos, that the Egyptians worshipped Aries, and therefore abstained from killing sheep, and held shepherds in contempt. Comp. "Behold we shall sacrifice the abomination of the Egyptians," etc. (Exod. 8:26); "For every shepherd is an abomination to the Egyptians" (Gen. 46:34). Some sects among the Sabeans worshipped demons, and imagined that these assumed the form of goats, and called them therefore "goats" [se‘irim]. This worship was widespread. Comp. "And they shall no more offer their sacrifices unto demons, after whom they have gone a whoring" (Lev. 17:7). For this reason those sects abstained from eating goats' flesh. Most idolaters objected to killing cattle, holding this species of animals in great estimation. Therefore the people of Hodu [Indians] up to this day do not slaughter cattle even in those countries where other animals are slaughtered. In order to eradicate these false principles, the Law commands us to offer sacrifices only of these three kinds: "Ye shall bring your offering of the cattle [viz.], of the herd and of the flock" (Lev. 1:2). Thus the very act which is considered by the heathen as the greatest crime, is the means of approaching God, and obtaining His pardon for our sins. In this manner, evil principles, the diseases of the human soul, are cured by other principles which are diametrically opposite.
(3) This is also the reason why we were commanded to kill a lamb on Passover, and to sprinkle the blood thereof outside on the gates. We had to free ourselves of evil doctrines and to proclaim the opposite, viz., that the very act which was then considered as being the cause of death would be the cause of deliverance from death. Comp. "And the Lord will pass over the door, and will not suffer the destroyer to come unto your houses to suite you" (Exod. 12:23). Thus they were rewarded for performing openly a service every part of which was objected to by the idolaters.
Rabbeinu Bachya, while not denying the Rambam's practical approach, engages with the spiritual aspects, and even explores matters of Messianic significance, in his commentary:
Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai says that the meaning of the verse in Chabakuk 3,6 is that G’d spied out amongst all those nations, searching for a country which would be suitable as a homeland for the Jewish people, a mountain suitable to give them the Torah, etc., and that He found none other than the land of these seven nations. Rabbi Hunna from Tzippori understood the word וימודד in that verse to mean that G’d (allegorically speaking) loosened their girdles, i.e. much as in Job 12,8 which is the reverse of חגור מתניכם, “tighten your belt ready for war or marching.” Rabbi Tanchum, son Chanilai said that the meaning of those words is that He let loose against them all the forbidden creepers. According to Vayikra Rabbah 13,2 this is a simile comparing the situation to a farmer who came to a threshing ground with a donkey on one side and a dog on the other. He loaded the donkey with five measures of grain and the dog with two. The donkey trotted along contentedly whereas the dog was clearly resentful. So the farmer took one of the measures of grain from the dog and added it to the load the donkey was carrying. Whereas the donkey did not protest the dog was still resentful. The farmer told the dog that it was not much good to him seeing it was unwilling to accept any responsibility (the seven Noachide laws) at all. Similarly the Gentile nations and the Jewish people. Seeing that the former do not even observe the basic seven Noachide laws G’d does not have much use for them and has permitted the Israelites to dispossess them completely. [In the version in the Midrash the restrictive word “seven” is absent. It appears that our author was careful not to offend the Christians in his host country. Ed.]
Another parable illustrating the relationship between G’d and the Jewish people. A physician went to see two of his patients. To the family of the one who was in a life-and death-situation he did not prescribe a specific diet for the patient, permitting him to eat whatever he wanted. To the second patient he gave very precise instructions what not to eat as this was apt to save his life. After a while the patient to whom the doctor had not prescribed a specific diet died whereas the other patient recovered. The families of both patients became aware that the doctor had prescribed only for the one patient and they wanted to know why. The doctor explained that the patient who died had been doomed already. There was therefore no point in denying him what he could enjoy on a short-term basis. The same applies to the Israelites and the seven Gentile nations who are doomed. Seeing that the latter are headed for death anyway, there is not much point in prescribing a restrictive diet. The Israelites, however, may be saved from their sickness if they keep a strict diet. Hence the Torah issued the instructions in this chapter, while allowing the Gentiles to eat whatever they want. This is the mystical dimension of introducing this chapter with the words זאת החיה, this is the life-giving legislation regarding food which may be consumed, etc.” Seeing that the Israelites are attached to eternal life, it is important hat they not consume food which could endanger their hereafter. (1) את הגמל...ואת השפן...ואת הארנבת...ואת החזיר. “the camel...and the hare...and the swine..etc.” Unless the mammals in question possess two distinct features, i.e. split hooves and chewing the cud they are not permitted to be eaten by the Israelites The fact that the list of forbidden mammals does not include the horse and the donkey is simply due to the fact that they do not even have a single one of these two distinguishing marks. The Torah singles out only such animals by name which possess at least one of the two mentioned. When the Torah mentions the pig, the dog is automatically included, seeing that dog has a cleft paw (if not hoof). We also find that Isaiah 66,3 lumps the pig and the dog together as being of a similar category when he says of the people who offer both as sacrifices to the Lord that what they do is abominable.
The Torah lists three animals in the masculine for it is clear that the corresponding females are also forbidden, seeing that the female of the species is considered a sub-category of the male. The same rule applies to the ארנבת “the female hare;” the reason that in this instance the Torah chooses to list the species in its female form is to indicate that the species is bisexual, hermaphrodite by nature, having both male and female genitals. (2) Midrash Tanchuma Shemini 8 points out that four animals are mentioned here in four separate verses to allude to four different empires which will play host to the Jewish people in exile. Verse four speaks of גמל, the camel, a reference to the Babylonian exile; we have a hint of this in Psalms 137,8 בת בבל השדודה אשרי שישלם לך את גמולך שגמלת לנו, “fair Babylon you predator, a blessing on him who repays you in kind what you have inflicted on us.” [The letters of the word גמל, “camel, appear twice in that verse. Ed.]
In verse five, the Torah speaks of the שפן, hyrax.” (it has short ears and hoofed feet).This is a reference to the exile under the Greeks which forbade the study and practice of Torah as we know from Amos 8,11: “a time is coming, declares my Lord G’d, when I will send a famine upon the land; not a hunger for bread or thirst for water, but for hearing the words of the Lord.” It is also written in verse 12 of that chapter: “men shall wander from sea to sea and from north to east to seek the word of the Lord, but they shall not find it.” [The connection of the above verse to שפן is not clear, there is also a variant in the Tanchuma relating the above verse to the hare, ארנבת, Ed.]
Concerning the hare, ארנבת, mentioned in verse six, this is a reference to the exile under the Medes, (Ahasverus) which treated the Jewish people as a פאה, the corner of a field the farmer must leave unharvested allowing all comers to help themselves. This is what almost happened under Haman, the regent of that empire. The name of the wife of King Talmay was ארנבת, hare. [Ptolemaus of Egypt, one of the heirs of Alexander’s empire who staked a claim to the land of Israel as part of his share, and was defeated by Antiochus. He commissioned translation of the Bible from Hebrew to Greek. That day was considered a black day in Jewish history by the scholars of the Talmud, Ed.]
The pig,חזיר, mentioned in verse 7 is a reference to the Roman empire, the fourth exile, the one which we still endure. David says in Psalms 80,14: “wild boars gnaw at it and creatures of the forest feed on it.” The word חזיר in that verse is a reminder of the Romans and their Satanic origin, the forest being considered where Satan has its lair. The words וגרה לא יגר, “it does not chew the cud,” is taken as a hint that this is the last exile, i.e. it will not repeat itself. Whereas these animals appear in separate verses in our chapter, in Deut. 14 where the gist of this legislation is repeated, the first three animals mentioned here appear in a single verse except for the pig. The message is that although the first three exiles occurred at different times they have something in common, i.e. the period that they lasted was relatively short. The present exile is in a totally different category equivalent to all the previous exiles combined. David arranged four separate Thanksgivings in Psalms to acknowledge our salvation from each of these exiles in chapter 136 known as הלל הגדול, “the great Hallel.” He commences with the words “Praise the Lord for He is good, His steadfast loves is eternal.” This line referred to our being redeemed from the Babylonian exile. The second verse “Praise the G’d of G’ds, His steadfast love is eternal,” is an expression of gratitude for our having been redeemed from the exile of the Greeks; the third verse, i.e. “Praise the Lord of lords, His steadfast love is eternal,” refers to our redemption from the exile of the Medes. David uses the expression הודו, ”praise!” in three successive verses to allude to the three animals Moses mentioned in verses 4-5-6 in our chapter. In the last verse of this “Hallel hagadol” where he concludes with the words הודו ל-אל השמים, this is a reference to the redemption from the yoke of the Romans. Seeing that he had foreseen all these exiles and their redemptions by means of his Holy Spirit, he mentions the word השמים, seeing that of that final redemption it is stated in Psalms 96,11 ישמחו השמים ותגל הארץ, “both the heavens and the earth will rejoice then.” [That psalm which commences with the words שירו לה' שיר חדש, clearly speaks of the final redemption as it will be different from the weaker שירה חדשה which earmarked the thanksgiving for the Exodus from Egypt. Ed.] (3) There is a version in the Tanchuma according to which the reason that the exile of the Roman empire is compared to the pig is because in the future G’d will repay these people יחזיר, with the attribute of Justice. There is even a version according to which the very Romans who destroyed the Temple will be the ones who have to rebuild it, thus making history come full circle and as implied by the meaning of the word חזיר, i.e. something subject to reversal. [This is compatible with Maimonides’ view that the Messiah will build the third Temple, (using the labour of the people who are the political heirs of the Romans, so that they repay their debt to the Jewish people). I have paraphrased some of this paragraph. Ed.]
Sforno focuses on the consequences of disobedience to these commands.
The Prophet Yeshayahu speaks of this as well, singling out the most abominable, i.e. the swine, the lizard or reptile, and the rat or mouse.
Water-dwelling Food Animals
Of seafoods, there are only two signs - the fin and the scale, and no other sign (e.g. hashgafah) is generally required.
והארבעה לפחיתותן, ואלו הן, בשר נבלות וטרפות שקצים ורמשים אם ישנן ברשותו מותר למכרן, שכן אמר הכתוב (שם יד) או מכור לנכרי, לומר שהתיר לך הכתוב למכור בהמה שהיתה כשרה וכונתך לאכול אותה לולא סבת המקרה שקרה בה, אבל אין הכתוב מתיר בה שתוכל לסחור בהן כשאר הבהמות הכשרות והטהורות. ושקצים דגים טמאים, הוא שכתוב כאן ואת נבלתם תשקצו, ולכך הוסיף זה להיות האסור בו שוה בין מת בין חי.
The four items which are of too inferior a status for the Torah to allow us to trade in them are: the meat of animals which died of natural causes, the meat of animals which died through disease or injury; the animals described in the Torah as שקצים ורמשים “loathsome, and creepers.” If one happens to own such animals already, not having acquired them, it is permitted to sell them just as he may trade in or sell pure animals which are in his possession. [The above definition of “in his possession” includes animals which were trapped but are of the forbidden category, whereas the hunter had meant to trap only permitted animals, an impure animal became trapped.] In the case of forbidden fish and other creatures of the sea such as lobsters, crabs, oysters, etc., they are forbidden to be traded in both when dead and when alive. This is why the Torah added: “and their carcass you should treat as something loathsome.”
Air-dwelling Food Animals
ועוד יש לתת טעם באיסור העופות, כי לפי שהקב"ה בוחר הטוב ואוהב השפלות וכל שאר המדות הטובות, ושונא האכזריות וכל שאר המדות הרעות, לכך בחר בקרבנו בבריות השפלות והתמות, ומאותן שהוא יתעלה בחר בהן לקרבן צוה את ישראל שיהיה מאכלם מהן, וכשם שהוא יתברך מרחיק העופות הטמאים לצורך קרבן כן מרחיק אותם לצורך מאכלם של ישראל, וכל זה ללמדנו שהוא יתעלה שונא מדת הרע והאכזריות, ואוהב מדת הטוב והשפלות והתמות. ומטעם זה ימשלו הנביאים את הרשעים ובעלי הטבע האכזרי לעופות טמאים דורסים, הוא שכתוב (ירמיה מט) הנה כנשר יעלה וידאה ויפרוש כנפיו על בצרה, וכתיב (דברים כח) ישא ה' עליך גוי מרחוק מקצה הארץ כאשר ידאה הנשר, וכן ימשילום עוד לבהמות וחיות דורסות, הוא שכתוב (ירמיה ה) על כן הכם אריה ביער זאב ערבות ישדדם נמר שוקד על עריהם, והזכיר דוד המלך ע"ה (תהלים נח) מלתעות כפירים נתוץ ה', (שם נז) נפשי בתוך לבאים אשכבה. וימשילו הצדיקים בעלי המדות הטובות אוהבי השלום והתמימות לבהמות תמות ולעופות תמימים, הוא שכתוב (ישעיה ה) ורעו כבשים כדברם, וכתיב (מלאכי ג) ויצאתם ופשתם כעגלי מרבק, וכתיב (הושע יא) יחרדו כצפור ממצרים וכיונה מארץ אשור, וכתיב (ישעיה ס) וכיונים אל ארובותיהם. (ה) ועוד יש לומר טעם אחר באיסור העופות לפי שאין מנחשין אלא בעופות הטמאים, והתורה אמרה (ויקרא יט) לא תנחשו, ולכך אסרה כל העופות הטמאים מצד הנחוש ומצד שהם דורסים, כי כל עוף שיש לו מעלה בדריסה יש לו מעלה בנחוש, והוא ראוי לסמוך עליו יותר, וחכמי הנחוש אומרים כן, ונחש העוף הטמא הוא שישתנה מעשהו וישתנה מושבו ממקום למקום, ולפעמים ימרוט כנפיו, והכל יודעין ומכירין שהוא מגלה דבר אלא שאין הכל מבינים אותו אלא החכם המנחש. ונחש העוף הטהור אינו נקרא נחש כי מה שהוא מגלה לבני אדם אינו אלא בקול הקריאה וצפצוף וזה אפילו בטמאים אינו נקרא נחש אלא חכמה, כמו שאמרו רז"ל שיחת דקלים ושיחת עופות ושיחת אילנות. ועל זה אמר שלמה בחכמתו (קהלת י) עוף השמים יוליך את הקול, שאין זה נחש מעשה כי אם נחש דבור, ואינו נקרא נחש אלא חכמה היא ממיני החכמות, ודומה למה שאמר הכתוב (ישעיה ל) ואזניך תשמענה דבר מאחריך לאמר זה הדרך לכו בו. (א) הדוכיפת זה תרנגול הבר שהודו כפול וכרבלתו כפולה, והוא הביא שמיר למקדש. וכן אמרו בגיטין פרק מי שאחזו במעשה של אשמדאי, אמר ליה לדידי לא אמסר לי שמירא, לשרא דימא אמסר ליה, ולא יהיב ליה אלא לתרנגולתא ברא דמהימן ליה אשבועתא, ומאי עביד ביה, ממטי ליה לטורא דלית ביה ישוב ומנח ליה אשינא דטורא ופקעי טורא, ומנקיט ומייתי בזרוני דאילני ושדי התם וקדחי, והיינו דמתרגמינן נגר טורא.
As to four-legged beasts, perhaps the fact that among those that chew the cud and have split hooves we do not find a single beast which is a beast of prey, may account for the fact that the Torah permitted these categories as food fit for Jews. All other types of four-legged mammals are forbidden by the Torah. (3) We find another peculiarity distinguishing between the forbidden and the permitted species of animals. The milk of all the forbidden animals does not lend itself to making cheese, i.e. it does not keep, does not congeal, whereas the milk of the animals we are permitted to eat can be converted into cheese. (4) The author speculates further on the deficiencies resulting from such strange behaviour of the milk of the forbidden animals, adding that he read in a medical textbook that if one suckled from the pig’s milk a child might contract leprosy as a result. This would be just an example that everyone of these forbidden animals contains within it negative influences for those who eat or drink of it. Thus far Nachmanides.
An additional reason why the impure birds are forbidden may be simply that G’d loves humility and similar good traits and hates arrogance and similar repugnant traits. The animals which have been approved by G’d as fit to serve as sacrifices for Him, are also suitable to be eaten by us. Seeing that G’d rejected all birds described as impure as possible sacrifices, He also excluded them as potential food for the Israelites. All this is to teach us and impress upon us how much G’d hates the negative virtues displayed by birds of prey. This is why very often the prophets compared evil and cruel people to certain categories of birds of prey such as Jeremiah 49,22 who wrote: “see like the eagle he flies up, he soars and spreads his wings against Bozra.” Or, Deut. 28,49 where Moses says: “the Lord will bring a nation against you from afar, which will swoop down like the eagle;” evil people have been compared to the predatory animals such as the lion in Jeremiah 5,6: “Therefore, the lion of the forest strikes them down, the wolf of the desert devours them; a leopard lies in wait by their towns” (the prophet speaks of the hypocrisy practiced by the inhabitants of the city of Jerusalem). David mentions wild beasts in such a context in Psalms 58,7 when he writes: “O G’d smash their teeth in their mouth; shatter the fangs of lions, O Lord.” Or, Psalms 57,5: “as for me, I lie down among man-eating lions whose teeth are spears and arrows, whose tongue is a sharp sword.”
By contrast, the righteous are usually compared to the kind of animals that are harmless, models of creatures with whom one can live in peace. Examples are Isaiah 5,17: “the lambs shall graze as in their meadows,” or Maleachi 3,20: “you shall go forth and stamp like stall-fed calves;” or Hoseah 11,11: “they shall flutter from Egypt like sparrows, from the land of Assyria like doves.” (5) Another reason why all these birds are considered impure may be the curious fact that the מנחשים, soothsayers and fortune-tellers, always use the bones of the birds which the Torah classifies as impure to practice their art. The Torah hates sooth-saying, has categorically forbidden it and decreed the death penalty for Jews practicing this art. We may therefore surmise that in addition to forbidding such birds because they are cruel birds of prey they are also symbolic of a form of rebellion against G’d when they are being used to reveal the future which G’d in His wisdom has seen fit to conceal from us. [The author quotes from theories of soothsayers regarding the efficacy of using different birds of prey in their craft. I do not consider this worth repeating. Ed.] (1) הדוכיפת, “the duchifass.” This is a wild rooster whose comb is doubled over and according to Rashi the bird known as hoopoe. It brought the shamir worm to the Temple (not deliberately) to enable Solomon to split stones without having to use metal tools (Chulin 63.). There is a comment in Gittin 68 that relates that the prince of the demons Ashmadai told Solomon that he had no idea where to get the shamir and that perhaps the duchifass could get it for him. The Talmud relates how the duchifass was tricked into releasing that worm, explaining the strange-sounding translation by Onkelos who renders the word as נגר טורא. “carpenter of the mountains.”